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Fish and seafood from Iceland
Greenland shark meat, which is toxic when fresh, is cut up, stacked in a draining box or a gravel pit and left for six to twelve weeks while bacteria break down its urea and TMAO into ammonia and trimethylamine. The pieces are then hung for weeks to months in an open drying shed and eaten in small cubes. Made in 3 steps over 2.5 months – 3.9 months. The longest step, stack and press to ferment (kæsing), takes 42 days – 2.8 months (Jensen S 2023) and runs at -3–20 °C (Jensen S 2023). Photobacterium (fresh meat) or Pseudoalteromonas (frozen meat), dominant in weeks 1–3 and linked to TMAO breakdown and Atopostipes, Pseudomonas and Tissierella do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 42 days – 2.8 monthsReported[matis2023] | Stack and press to ferment (kæsing) |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature | -3–20 °CMeasured[matis2023] | Stack and press to ferment (kæsing) |
| Acidity | pH 6 → 8.9Measured[matis2023] | Stack and press to ferment (kæsing) |
| Greenland shark meat, gutted and beheaded, cut into pieces · Back cuts and thinner belly (flap) cuts; the trial used 4–5 kg pieces[matis2023] |
| No salt and no starter · Nothing is added; bacteria come from the shark and its surroundings[matis2023][osimani2019] |
| Starter: spontaneous |
Total time across the recorded steps: 2.5 months – 3.9 months
What changes: The gutted shark is cut into large pieces of meat
In the Matís trial the shark was gutted and beheaded on board and kept on deck for two days before landing. Output: 4–5 kg back and flap cuts.
Microbes at work in this step
Not documented for this step.
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
Hákarl is fermented with no salt at all and turns alkaline rather than sour; the main change is bacteria turning the shark's urea and TMAO into ammonia and trimethylamine. Unlike surströmming it is finished by air-drying, not canning.
Fresh Greenland shark meat is considered toxic if eaten in quantity because it holds a lot of urea and TMAO; fermentation turns these into ammonia, trimethylamine and dimethylamine, so it is both preservation and detoxification. The alkaline pH of 8–9 holds back spoilage microbes, but finished hákarl has water activity near 0.96, enough for an active microbial community. Shark frozen before fermenting started with more TMAO but ended with less TMA and DMA.
Hazards the sources name: Listeria (minor DNA sequences, under 1 %, in ready-to-eat samples); Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (tested for; not found).
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
The oldest record of processed shark in Iceland dates from 1374. Hákarl was long a valued source of protein and energy, and today it is eaten mainly at the midwinter Þorri feasts.
