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Alcoholic drinks from worldwide
Red wine is made by fermenting crushed black grapes together with their skins, so the skins give the wine its colour and tannin. The wine is then pressed off the skins, usually goes through a second, bacterial malolactic fermentation, and is often matured in oak before bottling. Made in 7 steps over 9.2 months – 2 years. The longest step, mature, takes 9–22 months (Mercanti N. et al. 2026). Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Non-Saccharomyces yeasts early in fermentation do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 9–22 monthsReported[mercanti2026] | Mature |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature | 5–15 °CReported[sternad2026][awri-coldsoak] | Cold soak (optional) |
| Acidity | pH 3.3–3.5Reported[awri-mlf] | Malolactic fermentation |
| Black grapes (Vitis vinifera) · Destemmed and crushed; skins, pulp and seeds all go into the fermenter[vt-red] | |
| Up to 50 mg/L total | Sulphur dioxide (sulphite) · Added to the grapes at crushing; more can hold back the malolactic fermentation[awri-mlf][awri-coldsoak] |
| Yeast · Wild yeasts from the grapes and the cellar, or a selected Saccharomyces cerevisiae[tamang2016] | |
| Malolactic bacteria · Oenococcus oeni, wild or added once the alcoholic fermentation is done[awri-mlf] | |
| Starter | spontaneous (wild yeasts) or a selected Saccharomyces cerevisiae; malolactic bacteria (Oenococcus oeni), wild or added |
Total time across the recorded steps: 9.2 months – 2 years
What changes: The crusher splits the berries so juice, skins and seeds go into the vat together
Output: must with skins and seeds.
Microbes at work in this step
wild yeasts from the grape skins and the cellar enter the must
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
In red wine the skins stay in the vat during the alcoholic fermentation, which is where the colour and tannin come from. White wine is pressed first and fermented as clear juice. Almost all reds also go through malolactic fermentation, which is optional in white wines.
Sulphur dioxide is the main additive. The OIV caps total SO₂ at 150 mg/L in dry red wine, and in the EU any food with more than 10 mg/L must be labelled as containing sulphites. Methanol comes from grape pectin; the OIV limit for red wine is 400 mg/L.
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
Eugene Hilgard at the University of California showed in 1887 that colour is extracted before tannin, and that colour peaks sooner at higher temperatures.
