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Alcoholic drinks from Kiribati
On the Pacific atolls the unopened flower spathe of the coconut palm is bound, cut and tapped every morning and evening, and the sweet sap (karewe, kaleve) drips into a hanging shell or bottle. Drunk fresh it is a sweet drink; left in an unwashed shell it ferments in 12–18 hours into a sour, mildly alcoholic toddy (kamanging, kao). Boiled for hours, the same sap becomes a keeping syrup, kamaimai.
| Coconut sap (karewe) | From a spathe bound with string and shaved twice a day[karakaua1995] |
| Old karewe left in an unwashed shell | Seeds the fermentation of fresh sap[karakaua1995] |
| Starter | spontaneous, or back-slopped by using an unwashed shell that still holds old sap |
Total time across the recorded steps: 17 h – 3.3 days
What changes: The coconut spathe is bound tight with string and its tip is cut off
The spathe is massaged, split and bound firmly with string until about 4 ½ inches from the tip, then to ½ inch, and the tip is cut off [karakaua1995]. Output: bound spathe ready to tap.
Microbes at work in this step
Not documented for this step.
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
On the Pacific atolls the unopened flower spathe of the coconut palm is bound, cut and tapped every morning and evening, and the sweet sap (karewe, kaleve) drips into a hanging shell or bottle. Drunk fresh it is a sweet drink; left in an unwashed shell it ferments in 12–18 hours into a sour, mildly alcoholic toddy (kamanging, kao). Boiled for hours, the same sap becomes a keeping syrup, kamaimai. Made in 4 steps over 17 h – 3.3 days. The longest step, let the sap ferment into sour toddy, takes 12 h – 3 days (Karakaua L. 1995). Acetic acid bacteria (Gluconobacter) and non-Saccharomyces yeasts (Hanseniaspora), in a related coconut sap (Kalparasa, chilled collection) after 12 h of fermentation does most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 12 h – 3 daysReported[karakaua1995] | Let the sap ferment into sour toddy |
|---|
West African palm wine comes from oil or raphia palms, cut near the top of the trunk with a gourd tied below [fao1998]. Pacific toddy comes from the bound flower spathe of the coconut palm, shaved twice a day, and the sap is drunk fresh or boiled to syrup as well as fermented [karakaua1995, sikaiana].
Fresh coconut sap carries live yeasts and bacteria, as sequencing of a related chilled sap showed [gopal2021]. On Banaba sap left in an unwashed shell with old sap ferments in 12–18 hours, and fresh sap left to stand takes two or three days [karakaua1995], so sap that has stood can already hold alcohol. No amount of alcohol is known to be safe in pregnancy [cdc-alcohol-pregnancy]. The Banaban essay describes the alcoholic kamanging as a drink mainly for men at festivities, not as a food for infants or nursing mothers [karakaua1995]. Health workers in Kiribati counsel breast milk alone until six months [kodish2019]. Banaban practice keeps the sap sweet by changing the frond cover every morning and washing and drying the shells; lightly boiled katete keeps until evening and kamaimai syrup up to a year [karakaua1995].
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
On Sikaiana, toddy cutting and the process of fermentation were learned from Kiribati (Gilbertese) people who were brought there in the 1800s [sikaiana].
