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Cheese from Italy
Raw cow milk, part-skimmed by letting the cream rise overnight, is set with yesterday's soured whey and calf rennet in copper vats, cooked to about 55 °C and moulded into twin wheels. The wheels float in brine for about three weeks and age for at least 12 months. Made in 7 steps over 13 months. The longest step, age on wooden shelves, takes at least 12 months (Consorzio del Formaggio Parmigiano Reggiano) and runs at 16–18 °C (Coppola R 1997). Salt is 1.5–1.8 % (Coppola R 1997). Lactobacillus helveticus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | at least 12 monthsSet[pr-disc] | Age on wooden shelves |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature | 16–18 °CReported[coppola1997][franceschi2021][gatti2008] | Age on wooden shelves |
| Salt | 1.5–1.8 %Reported[coppola1997] | Float in brine |
| Acidity | pH 5.2–5.4Reported[bonilauri2026] | Lift in linen, cut in two, mould and mark |
| Evening milk · Raw cow milk, part-skimmed by letting the cream rise overnight in open basins[pr-disc] | |
| Morning milk · Raw whole cow milk, mixed in the next morning; no heat treatment or additives allowed[pr-disc] | |
| 2.5–3 L per 100 kg milk | Whey starter (siero-innesto) · Yesterday's sweet whey, soured overnight; adding cultures or nutrients to it is banned[pr-disc][franceschi2021] |
| 2.5–3 g per 100 kg milk | Calf rennet · The only coagulant allowed; the dose is one study's (strength 1:120,000)[pr-disc][franceschi2021] |
| Salt · As brine, 260–280 g per litre in one study[coppola1997] | |
| Starter | natural whey starter (siero-innesto) carried over from the previous day's make |
Total time across the recorded steps: 13 months
What changes: Cream rises on the evening milk and is skimmed off
The morning milk is mixed in the next day and may also be skimmed a little the same way. Output: part-skimmed evening milk; the cream goes to butter.
Microbes at work in this step
native raw-milk flora; the milk is never heated
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
The milk is raw and comes from two milkings, and the evening milk is skimmed only by letting the cream rise. The starter is the dairy's own soured whey with nothing added, calf rennet is the only coagulant, and no additives are allowed. Grana Padano, made the same way over a wider area, may add lysozyme and is aged for less time.
The milk is raw, so the process itself has to remove pathogens. A 2026 review of challenge tests found that the cook at 53–56 °C and the drop to pH 5.2–5.4 cut Listeria, Salmonella, E. coli and S. aureus by more than 4 log within 24–48 h. Mycobacteria die more slowly and need the long ripening. The UK NHS counts hard cheeses, including unpasteurised parmesan, as safe in pregnancy.
Hazards the sources name: Raw-milk pathogens (Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus); challenge tests found them gone within 24–48 h of moulding; Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis; dies more slowly and needs the long ripening.
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
Commonly traced to Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries of the 12th and 13th centuries.
