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Soy and legumes from China
Firm tofu cubes are grown over with mould, salted, then ripened for months in a dressing of red yeast rice (angkak), rice wine, salt, sugar and flour or bean paste. The red rice colours the outside of each cube deep red while the inside turns apricot-yellow and creamy.
| Firm tofu, cut into cubes | [tan2020] |
| Mould starter (Actinomucor, Mucor or Rhizopus) | Sprayed on the tofu to make the moulded cubes (pehtze)[tan2020][han2004m] |
| Salt | A saturated salt solution salts the pehtze, and salt goes into the dressing again[tan2020] |
| Red yeast rice (angkak) | The colourant that makes it red; the white kind leaves it out[tan2020][jgs2024] |
| Alcoholic drink (rice wine or spirit) | [tan2020] |
| Sugar, flour or soybean paste, and spices | [tan2020] |
| Starter | defined culture: mould sprayed on the tofu; Monascus comes in with the red yeast rice |
Total time across the recorded steps: 3.8 months
What changes: Monascus mould grows through steamed rice and turns every grain red
Output: red yeast rice (angkak).
Microbes at work in this step
Monascus purpureus grows through the steamed rice and turns it red
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
Firm tofu cubes are grown over with mould, salted, then ripened for months in a dressing of red yeast rice (angkak), rice wine, salt, sugar and flour or bean paste. The red rice colours the outside of each cube deep red while the inside turns apricot-yellow and creamy. Made in 5 steps over 3.8 months. The longest step, add the red dressing and ripen in sealed jars, takes at least 3 months (Han B-Z. 2003). Salt is at least 11 % (Han B-Z. 2003). Moulds that make the pehtze: Actinomucor repens, A. taiwanensis, Mucor circinelloides, M. hiemalis, M. racemosus, Rhizopus microsporus and Monascus purpureus, which grows the red yeast rice added in the dressing do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | at least 3 monthsReported[han2003] | Add the red dressing and ripen in sealed jars |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature | 27 °CReported[sic-ftofu] | Make the red yeast rice |
| Salt | at least 11 %Reported[han2003] | Salt the pehtze |
| Acidity | pH 5.5–6.8Measured[han2001b] | Keep in its dressing |
Red furu is white furu with red yeast rice in the ripening dressing. The rice adds the red colour, and its antimicrobial compounds may be why lactic bacteria rarely grow in it.
Botulism is the serious risk when it is made at home. Commercial red sufu sits at pH 5.50–6.78, so acid does not hold C. botulinum back. In a CDC report, California health officials found botulinum toxin in one home-prepared batch of fermented tofu (boiled shop tofu left under plastic wrap) at pH 6.8, made and kept at room temperature. The report warns that home preparation can cause botulism, and says home-fermented bean products are the commonest food behind botulism in China (63 % of about 2,000 cases, 1958–1989). We found no tested home method. Bacillus cereus was found in every commercial sufu tested, at 10⁵ cfu/g or more in two red samples, which the authors call a potential hazard. One of those samples also held Clostridium perfringens at about 10⁵ cfu/g.
Hazards the sources name: Clostridium botulinum type A and its toxin (in a home-prepared fermented tofu with chilli, at pH 6.8); Bacillus cereus, found in every commercial sufu tested; 10⁵ cfu/g or more in two red samples; Clostridium perfringens (about 10⁵ cfu/g in one commercial red sufu of 12).
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
The earliest verifiable Chinese record of fermented tofu is in the Pen-ts'ao kang-mu (1578–97). In 1920 Margaret Church of the USDA first referred to it in English as "Chinese cheese" (Shurtleff and Aoyagi).
